An Assignment on the Linguistic Acquisition Device Essay Example for Free

An Assignment on the Linguistic Acquisition Device Essay In linguistics, language acquisition is the process through which human beings obtain the capability to comprehend and perceive language as well as produce sentences and words and utilize them to communicate. According to Chomsky, his Linguistic Acquisition Device (LAD) encompassed a device that children were born that could be defined as the inborn ability to comprehend the language principles. This LAD fits his innateness Hypothesis of language acquisition because he believed that once a child was exposed to language, the LAD would enable him or her to learn language in an outstanding pace as also elucidated under his critical period hypothesis Question Two According to Noam Chomsky’s critical period hypothesis, human speech encompassed a genetically programmed ability that had a critical age threshold. This is because like a variety of other human behaviors, an individual’s ability to acquire language is based on critical periods that are defined as the limited time span during which the individual is sensitive to the language acquisition external stimuli that enables him or her to acquire language. Once this time is surpassed the individual has minimum chances of acquiring language. This critical period in language acquisition was adolescence to Chomsky. Question Three Genie was discovered in Los Angeles on November 4, 1970. She was discovered by a social worker in Temple City, California when she accompanied her mother as she sought for disability benefits due to near blindness. The social worker had initially sensed that something was wrong with Genie and she got so shocked when she greeted them and discovered that Genie was actually 13 years old though the social worker had estimated that she was autistic and half that age. The social worker contacted her supervisor, who after questioning Genie’s mother contacted the police. Genie’s parents were later arrested and she was made the ward of the court and later transferred to the Children’s Hospital Lost Angeles. She was unable to acquire a language within a critical period due to the severe child abuse she went through under the hands of her father. Question Four The symptoms she displayed of this failure after she was discovered were here severe undersize regardless of her advanced age of 13 years. She had no understanding of grammar she could only comprehend 15-20 words. Two short phrases were what consisted of her active vocabulary and hence she had complete lack of speech, not because she was selectively mute but because she lacked any type of language. Though she had considerable memories of her past she lacked a way to communicate them. Question Five The forbidden experiment was the language deprivation experiment under which infants were isolated from any normal utilization of signed or spoken language as an attempt to discover the origin or language or human nature’s fundamental characteristics. Viktor became a model of this experiment because before his discovery he had lived in a forest like a wild animal and had been unable to understand or speak any language. After being placed under the care of Dr Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, he acquired the language rudiments and became socialized. Question Six She began to use the two-word phrases when she started to understand about 200 vocabulary words. Her speech began to improve after settling in her ne surrounding though it continued to exhibit latency. With time she started using negative forms with not rather than the prefix un. By October 1973 she could easily comprehend complex negation forms. By October 1971 she could listen to people talking and even contribute to the conversations. By November f the same year her speech and grammar could be equated to that of an 18 or 20 month old baby. By 1972 she could use complex noun phrases and regular plurals as well as understand interrogative words. By 1973 she was using determiners, definite articles, possessives and imperative sentences. She however did not acquire automatic speech. Question Seven The ethical implications of the language deprivation experiment are that it encompassed an inhuman experiment that would deprive the infants of their language acquisition abilities. Regardless of this Viktor benefited from this experiment because he was later able to acquire language rudiments and be socialized. The ethical implications of the experiments on Genie were linked to the fact that they subjected her to additional child abuse rather than help her because the researchers were more focused on the results of their results rather than hoe the research could benefit Jeanie. To some extent Jeanie benefited from the experiments because her language abilities improved but the researchers used her to acquire fame.

Why free trade is both realistic and desirable in the real world

Why free trade is both realistic and desirable in the real world This paper is going to answer the question Why free trade is both realistic and desirable in the real world? and explain why I might be pessimistic about the prospects for global growth and development. In each issue, I support my opinions by firm arguments in real world as well as in academic The content 2.1 The concepts First of all, I would like to mentions about the main concepts that I am going to discuss about. Free trade is trade in which goods, services can move across countries without any barriers, i.e. tariffs, quotas or other restrictions. (Todaro Stephen, 2009). Or Free trade is a system in which goods, capital and labor flow freely between nations (What is free trade, WiseGeek [online], 2011). Free Trade has four main features: No taxes (tariffs) or other non-tariff barriers for producers to trade in goods and services Traders have free access to markets and market information The free movement of goods, services, labor and capital between and within countries No firms could distort the markets through relying on the monopoly power from the governments (Free trade, Wikipedia [online], 2011) Next, according to Nafziger (2006), Economic Growth refers to increases in production or incomes or income per capita in a country. And Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure (Nafziger, 2006:15). Therefore, growth is a necessary factor but not sufficient for development 2.2 Free Trade is realistic and desirable In this section, I am going to argue for the view that free trade is both realistic and desirable in the real world. First, about the view that free trade is realistic, I have six strong arguments to support that idea. The first argument is about the lost in tariff revenues. Free trade means no revenues in tariffs; however, the governments should reform their tax systems to make them become more efficiently and effectively through putting taxes on right objects with appropriate rates. That can compensate the lost in tariff revenues and even increase the tax revenues. The transportation and the communication are very convenient; people can travel faster, and they can communicate together from a distance. Thus, the workers are no longer afraid of traveling. Additionally, the developing countries are reducing regulations in labor market to attract specialists and high skilled labor from advanced nations. Thus, the mobility of labor markets is increasing. The decentralization is a current trend in the world, and it helps countries can reach free trade by eliminating the monopoly. That will increase the transparency in economies and trade regimes in countries, so no firms can rely on monopoly from the governments to distort the markets. In reality, decentralization is almost reached in countries such as: US, Germany; and it is progressing in developing countries such as, i.e. Brazil, Mexico, Bolivia and Eastern European countries. Next, there are many organizations that support and facilitate free trade such as World Trade Organization (WTO), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and European Union. In Vietnam in 2006, the leaders of the 21 members of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) launched a process to negotiate and establish the largest single of trade liberalization in the world which is called Free Trade Area of the Asia Pacific (FTAAP). That free-trade zone will account for 44% of global trade, and more than a half of the global gross domestic product. (Bergsten, 2007) and ( Article Bliss [online], 2011) In developed countries, the protectionists assert that free trade will make the unemployment severe by moving jobs from their countries to developing nations. But the governments can solve that problem by improving the social safety and welfare to compensate displaced workers and help them have jobs in high advanced industries that the developed countries specialize in. Finally, the developing countries can produce assistance in technology, finance and information system to help them adapt free trade easier and help domestic firms compete with foreign ones more efficiently. Second, I can say that free trade is desirable because free trade produce many benefits and advantages in the real world. Thus, many countries really desire free trade. The first significant role of free trade is that it is an important stimulator of economic growth. The free trade has proved its role through the success in economic growth in East and South East Asia countries (Todaro Stephen, 2009). For instance, Taiwan, which have the export-focus strategy, has average economic growth rate about 8% over more than four decades and grew nearly 10% annually in the 1965-80 period. It also has achieved its goals in education, health care and poverty alleviation successfully (Smith, 2003). Next, the international trade has a significant role in GDP in developing countries. Figure 1: Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) Source: Derived from World Bank, World Development Indicators, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS, 15 March 2011 According to the figure, the exports accounts for about near a half of GDP in developing countries from 2005 to 2009. Free trade promotes the exports from developing countries, so it has a very important role in developing countries. Free trade increases the competitions in the world, because it helps foreign companies can trade as efficiently and effectively as domestic ones. Therefore, it will make the prices for goods and services cheaper through promoting competitions. Moreover, free trade also encourages innovation, since companies need to produce innovative products and solutions to obtain market share (Toye, 2004). Next, Free trade is an important means to achieve the development. Free trade increase national incomes and force nations to adjust and improve their infrastructure, policies, laws and society system to adapt free trade. Thus, free trade is powerful instrument to achieve the goals of development such as: stability, freedom, and quality of life (i.e. education, happiness and health). For example: based on the export of garment industry, Bangladeshs poverty reduction in 1990s was quite dramatic and it promote the process of achieving development goals in Bangladesh (Goldin Reinert, 2006) Next, there is the witness of the success of export promotion strategy and the limitation or failure of import substitution strategy in reality. Meanwhile, export-oriented countries such as: Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore have got rapid rate of economic growth; Latin America promoted import substitution policies in the 1960s, but they were not successful, and such policies have been replaced by export-led strategies. Import substitution produces some disadvantages such as: inefficient domestic industries, the deficit in the balance of payment because the value of import inputs is higher than the value of export outputs. As the estimation, the import substitution waste about 10% of national income of developing countries. (Salvatore, 2011). Next, the benefits from free trade agreements such as WTO and NAFTA can explain why free trade is desirable in reality. First, WTO integrates countries in the world to the international system, and motivates them to protect and expand that system. WTO ensures that countries could not selectively open their market, and promotes economic relations between countries (Business Roundtabble [online], 2006, cited in 2011). Next, NAFTA help Mexico became attractive place for workers from Central America, where wages were only about an eighth as high as those in Mexico by 2002. That makes other Latin American countries seem eager to join in a free trade agreement as soon as possible (Smith, 2003). The classic academic theories support free trade such as absolute advantage theory, comparative advantage theory and relative factor endowments theory. These theory argue that the nations will increase welfare when they specialize in their advantages, endowment factors and conduct free trade together (Salvatore, 2011) The prospect for global growth and development is pessimistic As I mention above, free trade is realistic and desirable in the real world; however, I have seven firm arguments to support my pessimistic view about the prospects for global growth and development The first argument is that all resources in the world are fixed in quantity and they are being fully employed (Todaro Smith, 2009:606). The manufactures require a huge demand on raw material, fuels especially fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil) which are non-renewable. When the quantity of these fuels decrease and become exhausted, their prices will increase so that the manufacture faces the stagnation. The price of oil (USD) increase constantly from 12.28 in 1998 to 100.12 in 201, and it is expected to increase more in the future (Source: Derived from OPEC, OPEC Basket Price, 2011), that will impact the global growth as well as the development. Next, the inequalities are increasing between and within countries (Todaro Smith, 2009:589). The disparity between rich countries and poor countries as well as the inequalities within countries is increasing. The inequalities will increase the conflict in economic, political and social benefits between people in different classes, religions and country. That will make the development and global growth more and more unsustainable. The environment problems become more severe; especially, the environmental degradation and global warming are increasing rapidly. It will affect all nations in the world, especially poor countries whose productions depend on climate and environment so much. However, the rich countries such us U.S, Japan, Russia and China have not acted sufficiently to prevent or reduce the global warming and environmental degradation because it will impact their productions. When the environmental life is degraded, the development as well the global growth will be hinder and maybe worse. Many countries are still in deep poverty and they are being depended on agricultural and primary-product export. There are more than 1 billion people live on less than 1$ per day and the number of people live in poverty has doubled in the last two decades in Africa. In addition, 70% people live in rural in developing countries depend on agricultural and primary product exports, whose incomes are very unstable and risky. That will make the growth and development in developing countries fluctuant (Todaro Smith, 2009) and (Salvatore, 2011) There is a trend of new protectionism in advanced nations (i.e. North America and Euro) against the exports from developing countries. They are trying to protect their domestic producers, workers and farmers from the lower cost products in developing countries. That will obstruct the free trade in the world as well as the welfare gain from exports in developing countries. For example, even though 8 liberalization round have occurred over 50 years, the trade barriers still remains in agricultural products and textile industry. Next, the population in the world is rising. That will impact and make the problems of poverty, environment and food more and more severe, especially in poor and developing countries. That is a significant factor, which will hinder and obstruct the global growth and development. Figure 2: Population Growth ( annual %) Source: Derived from World Bank, World Development Indicators, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW, 20 March 2011 Finally, due to the World Financial and Economic Crisis in 2008 and 2009, the advanced nations faced deep recession and the developing countries face low rate of growth. Many countries such as U.S, U.K, Japan and Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ have to spend billions dollar to rescue their economies. The worlds GDP growth rate slows down by 2% for 2008 and 2009 (Source: Derived from World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2011). In addition, the government will tighten their financial market through regulations. It will affect the manufacture, business and investment because they need money to expand and develop. The conclusion To sum up, the economies in the world can reach free trade; and because of free trades advantages and benefits, it is desired by countries in the world. I assert that fee trade is realistic and desirable in the real world. However, there are many serious problems that are impacting and will obstruct the global growth and development in the world. Thus, I have a pessimistic view about global growth and development.

The Slavery Effect In Todays Society

The Slavery Effect In Todays Society In the eighteenth century there were an estimated six million slaves in the world. That number, large as it was, does not come close to the number of slaves in todays society. The current worldwide estimates are over twenty-seven million. Every year seventeen thousand slaves are trafficked into the United States, of that number, eighty percent are women and fifty percent of those (seven thousand) are children. Seventy percent of the females are imported for prostitution. It is astonishing how even though slavery is not seen or heard of much in todays society it still exists heavily and quietly affects our everyday life. It is extremely sad, yet, regretfully true. The history of slavery dates back to 1780 B.C. though laws have been passed in most countries that prevent, or at least lessen, slavery, it still exists today. By definition, slavery means the complete ownership and control by a master: to be sold into slavery. Slavery indicates a state of subjugation or captivity often involving burdensome and degrading labor. Slavery occurs when people -known as slaves- were placed in servitude as the property of a household or company. Slaves are deprived of their personal freedom and compelled to perform labor or services. Slaves are the properties of another person, household, company, corporation, or government and are unable to leave or have any freedom. Primarily slaves were sold amongst companies, corporations, governments, or people. The practice of exporting slaves is called slave trafficking. Slavery is currently found in many countries all over the world. In other countries, though known by another name, it is still slavery. In Canada sl aves are called servants and in Nordic countries they are called thralls. In the year 1670 the first African slave was introduced to America. The slaves of that time period were treated poorly; most were beaten with whips for the slightest infraction. Most, were simply tired, hungry or thirsty; some just too old to do the work and were brutally beaten to death. Many slaves would die of illnesses like malaria or yellow fever because of their limited immunities to these diseases. Others died from malnutrition, poor living conditions, and exhaustion; there was a very high mortality rate among slaves. To this day slaves are still exploited all over the world even though we actually do not see it or hear about it. Although in most countries in todays society traditional slavery has been abolished, it still exists in some countries and much of the slavery that exists is done so illegally. Some of the countries that have abolished slavery are the United States, Africa, many European countries, and China. Though abolished, it still exists, just using a different title. The highest percentage of slavery that is seen in todays age is child labor. Many countries have enacted child labor laws, protecting the rights of children. Typically children are not allowed to work until they reach the age of fourteen. There are children as young as four working on plantations. Most child labor laws state that only children over the age of fourteen can work between the hours of seven in the morning until nine at night and no more than forty hours per week or eight hours in one day excluding school da ys in which they can work after school until 8:00 PM. Children, prior to the age of 18 must get a work permit filled out by their school before they are allowed to work; these children must maintain at least a 2.0 grade point average in order to continue their employment. In many countries this is not the case and the childrens primary duty is work. These children do not have the chance of an education. Child labor is not the only form of slavery still in existence. Some companies maintain a policy of only enslaving adults, while others only employ children. Many children who are put into slavery end up working in clothing manufacturing plants also known as sweatshops. A sweatshop is a factory where workers make products in very poor working conditions. Child labor is also abused in harvesting cotton, fruits, and vegetables. Many slaves also work in sugar cane and coffee factories. The selling of females, as disgusting as this may sound, is still a common practice in some countries. Young women are often sold by their families for marriage, domestic uses, like cleaning and cooking, while others are sold into sex trafficking and were forced into prostitution. Many children are taken from their families to become soldiers. Countries such as Lebanon and Colombia regularly enlist young children to carry guns and become soldiers of war. Rarely is this considered a form of slavery, yet by definition, it is. As you can see there are many types of slavery that still exist today. The following exhibits how the name has changed but the practice is still the same. Bonded Labor occurs when people have taken a simple loan for something such as medicine, food or housing for themselves or their family and to pay it back they are put to work by the lender creating a type of slavery. With bonded labor often the child of the debtor are put to work in order to pay the bond. Early and Forced Marriage is the parental practice of selling off daughters as they reach adolescence. Daughters are sold for monetary gain. Frequently, there are also religious reasons for this practice. Their families give the girls into arranged marriages. They have no choice as to who they are to marry. Once married they are owned by their new husband. Forced Labor is where a person is forced into work by the threat of physical harm. Much like the slavery that we read of in our history books, these slaves work out of fear of violence. Slavery by Descent means simply that a child is born into slavery. The parents are slaves, thus the child is a slave. It just continues generation after generation. Trafficking, according to the Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking (C.A.S.T.), is the recruitment and transportation of persons within or across boundaries by force, fraud, or deception for the purpose of exploiting them economically. Trafficked people most commonly work in sweatshops, restaurants, on farms, in manufacturing, prostitution and as private domestic workers Sadly, many parents end up giving their child into slavery to pay off a debt or simply sell their own children for support their families. Many young women are raped by their owners ending up pregnant thus bring more children into the life of slavery. This article could have been written in 1808, or 1908, but sadly, it is being written in 2008. Youd think that in todays civilized society that slavery would truly have been completely abolished, however, the name has just been changed. Slavery affects todays society so much, even though we do not notice it, slavery is everywhere. Next time youre in a department store, pick up some of the products and look to see where they were manufactured. It is highly unlikely that it will have the name of a country with strict child labor laws in place. There are U.S. companies that even move their manufacturing plants outside of the U.S. in order to employ children at a lesser cost. It is extremely hard to believe but most products we use on a daily basis were produced in countries that allow this type of slavery. Products such as sugar, shoes, tea, coffee, chocolate, fruits, and vegetable are made by modern-day slaves. The U.S. Department of Labor disclosed that our countrys largest retailer, Wal-Mart, was fined a measly 135,000.00 for violating child labor laws. The violation: Children operating chain saws and box crushing machinery. Toys-R-Us was cited for working 14-year-old children late into the night. The management for this huge corporations stated that they misunderstood the child labor laws pertaining to how long they could work a fourteen-year-old child. While driving through a large city, maybe in the seedier part of town, notice the young girls on the streets. Where did they come from? Did slave traffickers transplant them here? Are they runaways with no other alternatives? Think about the practices of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Later Day Saints. How is what was going on in Eldorado, Texas any different than sexual slavery? Over 200 women and children were recently taken from this remotely locate temple only after a teenage girl reported that she was being held there against her will and had been forced to marry a fifty year old man as well as have his child. Though illegal, it goes on unknown to most of us to this day. Most of us, unknowingly, support these new forms of slavery. We buy the products from the companies that employ these workers. We, as a nation, do little more than smirk when we read about the religious organizations that condone arranged, under-aged marriages as well as polygamy. In conclusion, though you may not see it, slavery still exists. It has taken on new forms. The name has changed. It doesnt look the same as we have read about in the history books but by any other name it is still slavery. Think about it next time you buy that cute tank top or stop in for your favorite latte.

Graduation Speech: Measure Your Success by Your Relationships :: Free Graduation Speech

Raoul Wallenberg, a man who saved thousands from the horrors of the Holocaust, told the story of a Rabbi and the lesson that he taught to his young learners. The Rabbi asked the young boys the following question: When is it that night turns into day? One boy offered that perhaps it was when he was on his way home from a friend's house, and he could see the sun coming up over the top of his house in the distance. The Rabbi kindly replied that no, that was not it. Another boy suggested that perhaps it was when he was in the forest, and he could see the sun coming through the tops of the trees above him. The Rabbi once again turned down the answer. And then the Rabbi gave the correct response. The point at which night turns into day is when you can look into the eyes of a perfect stranger and see your brother. Let me rephrase that: the point at which we truly become intelligent people, meaning our eyes are no longer clouded over by the darkness of ignorance, is when we can recognize each other for who we really are. Until we reach that point, we have not become intelligent people. Many people believe that intelligence stems from letter grades or from innate brilliance. I have to admit that I've thought that way too. But such is not the case. So, then, what is the importance of all this? Of college? Of all the hard work? The importance is not the facts that you have rolling around your brain when you graduate but the experiences that have changed your soul. So don't let anyone tell you what an incredible success you are because you make a huge amount of money a year. Don't believe the passerby who immediately is intimidated by the letters PHD after your name. Don't feel bad because you don't understand the principles of

Realism vs. Romanticism in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essays

     Ã‚   Nathaniel Hawthorne’s classic tale â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† is a good example of a short story embodying both characteristics of realism and characteristics of romanticism. M. H. Abrams defines romantic themes in prominent writers of this school in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as being five in number: (1) innovations in the materials, forms and style; (2) that the work involve a â€Å"spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings†; (3) that external nature be a persistent subject with a â€Å"sensuous nuance† and accuracy in its description; (4) that the reader be invited to identify the protagonist with the author himself; and (5) that this be an age of â€Å"new beginnings and high possibilities† for the person (177-79).    Let us examine â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† in light of the above. First of all, Hawthorne was a real innovator in his use of the psychological approach to characters within a story. A. N. Kaul considers Hawthorne â€Å"preeminently a ‘psychological’† writer – â€Å"burrowing, to his utmost ability, into the depths of our common nature, for the purposes of psychological romance. . . .† (2). Q. D. Leavis says: â€Å"Hawthorne has imaginatively recreated for the reader that Calvinist sense of sin. . . . But in Hawthorne, by a wonderful feat of transmutation, it has no religious significance, it is as a psychological state that it is explored† (37). The reader experiences most of the story through the eyes and feelings of the protagonist, Goodman. In the following passage the reader is allowed, as is typical, to read his thoughts:    "Poor little Faith!" thought he, for his heart smote him. "What a wretch am I, to leave her on such an errand! She talks of dreams, too. Methought, as she spoke, there was troubl... ... Swisher. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 1996.    Hawthorne, Nathaniel. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown.† 1835. http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~daniel/amlit/goodman/goodmantext.html    James, Henry. Hawthorne. http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/nhhj1.html    Kaul, A.N. â€Å"Introduction.† In Hawthorne – A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by A.N. Kaul. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.    Leavis, Q.D. â€Å"Hawthorne as Poet.† In Hawthorne – A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by A.N. Kaul. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.      Ã¢â‚¬Å"Nathaniel Hawthorne.† The Norton Anthology: American Literature, edited by Baym et al.   New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1995.    Swisher, Clarice. â€Å"Nathaniel Hawthorne: a Biography.† In Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Clarice Swisher. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 1996.   

Bromus tectorum ( cheatgrass or downy brome)

Researching on Bromus tectorum lead me to a vast collection of literature about the plant species. An almost complete reference on it is provided by the Nature Conservancy, Wildland Weed Program. For my essay/report, I used its â€Å"Element Stewardship Abstract for Bromus tectorum† written by Allan Carpenter and Thomas Murray as my main reference. The plant species Bromus tectorum is an alien grass or an invader that usually takes over â€Å"disturbed ground in shrub-steppe ecosystems of the Western United States and Canada† (Link et al. ). The scientific name is of Greek and Latin origins.According to the work of Upadhyaya et al. , the genus name Bromus is said to have originated from the archaic Greek word bromos, which refers to a particular kind of oat. The ancient Greek word broma, in addition, means food. The specific epithet, on the other hand, was believed to have been derived from the Latin words tector and tectum, which mean ‘one who overlays’ an d roof, respectiviely. Bromus tectorum is more commonly known as cheatgrass to local inhabitants. Other parts of North America call it downy brome because of its noticeably hairy leaves. There are many other names associated to this species.The documented ones include drooping brome, downy cheat, cheat grass brome, slender chess, Mormon oats, and broncograss (Upadhyaya et al. ). Cheatgrass is erect and can rise up to 24 inches high. Its leaves and stems shape into tufts or clumps as seen in Figure 1. The grass has tiny, pappy hair like structures that cover its leaves. Bromus tectorum is an annual grass and is usually dense during winter or spring. This annual plant germinates in fall or spring. However, it has been observed that vast numbers of â€Å"cheatgrass seedlings usually germinate after the first fall rain in infested areas† (West).Cheatgrass only replicates through seeds. However, it is exceptionally efficient; that is, an individual cheatgrass may reproduce hundred s to thousands of seeds (Mosely et al. 1987 cited in Pyron). Its root system then proceeds to develop for the entire duration of the winter season. By spring, the grass has an already wide-ranging root system, enabling the plant to draw out higher levels of moisture and soil nutrients. Cheatgrass has a compact phenology and usually desiccates and spreads its seeds by mid-June (West 1983). Naturally, it undergoes senescence in summer.Once dried, these plants can catalyze wildfires in its regions. The frequent occurrence of fires in an area displaces perennials and even other annuals that initially dominate a particular community (West 1983). Cheatgrass has a Eurasian native range (Novak, Mack, and Soltis). However, it is now found in diverse forms of habitats all over the United States; but, it is most distinguished on the â€Å"Columbia-Snake River Plateau, Wyoming Basin, and the northern portion of the Great Basin in disturbed sagebrush steppe communities† (Rice and Mack ; W est).In the mid 1800s, it was accidentally brought into the United States of America. The invasion of North America by B. tectorum occurred through multiple introductions (Bartlett et al. ). In regions where the soil has especially high levels of potassium in it, cheatgrass is found to grow and proliferate well in the area (Belnap pers. comm. cited in Carpenter et al. ). Research has shown that the measured potassium levels in communities can be used to determine and probabilistically predict how susceptible and vulnerable the area may be to cheatgrass takeover.The amount of potassium in the soil may also be altered to alter the abundance of cheatgrass. By lowering the levels of potassium in the soil, the density of cheatgrass may also be lowered. (Belnap pers. comm. cited in Carpenter et al. ). The control of growth and proliferation of cheatgrass in a particular area has shown great significance. Since cheatgrass exhibits both advantage and disadvantages, it is important to be abl e to moderate its invasion. Cheatgrass has a twofold role; one, as an annoying and pestering weed, and two, a significant â€Å"early season forage for cattle and sheep† (Emmerich et al.; Upadhyaya et al. ). Bromus tectorum takes over â€Å"rangelands, pastures, prairies, and other open areas,† as seen in Figure 2 (www. invasive. org). Consequently, it has the capacity to thoroughly modify the ecosystems it invades. It poses many ecological and environmental problems because of its propensity to completely wipe out all native foliage and vegetation in a particular area and even modify certain fire patterns. The alterations caused by cheatgrass in the frequency of fire cycles is said to be â€Å"the species’ greatest competitive advantage.† (Whisenant) In sagebrush grassland ecosystem, fire is a natural occurrence (see Figure 3). Those fires usually happened at intervals within the range of 60-100 years. However, in areas where the presence of cheatgrass d ominates, areas burn at a much greater and increased frequency, every 3-5 years (Whisenant). With this frequency range, native plants, shrubs, and other perennial grasses cannot keep up and fail to recover. This results to the development of cheatgrass monoculture; other species tend to be completely wiped-out.The vegetation of a pristine (undisturbed) shrub-steppe ecosystem is populated by â€Å"perennial bunchgrasses and widely spaced shrubs† (Whisenant). According to the work of Whisenant, the species that are commonly replaced by cheatgrass include the following: â€Å"big sagebrush, antelope bitterbrush, bluebunch wheatgrass, crested wheatgrass western wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, needle-and-thread grass, and Thurber’s needlegrass. † Sagebrush steppe cannot simply persist with this shortened fire interval.As how Devine put it, â€Å"fire begets cheatgrass and cheatgrass begets fire† (Devine). What are the advantages of Bromus tectorum or cheatgras s? For ranchers, it is especially useful since it provides a large volume of early spring forage for different types of livestock and animals on grazing lands especially in the Intermountain and Pacific Northwest regions (Upadhyaya et al. ). In terms of its density and the quality of herbage grown including the wideness of the area covered by cheatgrass, it is â€Å"undoubtedly the most important spring forage in the region† (Upadhyaya et al.; Emmerich et al. ). On the other hand, while ranchers in the Intermountain and Pacific Northwest regions take advantage of cheatgrass, the United States and Canada winter wheat growers consider it as pest—their worst problem (Upadhyaya et al. 1986). According to literature, cheatgrass is a problematic weed in winter wheat. Cheatgrass has many ecological and competitive advantages in contrast with other perennial and annual plants. It has the ability to adapt well and evolve to its native environment and to other environments it in vades.Although this has shown to have certain advantages especially to ranchers for foraging, this characteristic of cheatgrass has posed many problems in the ecology and can be very damaging. In my opinion, it is only proper that human intervention be exercised to control its dominance and invasions. Cheatgrass is a sinister. As discussed, it raises both agricultural and environmental problems. The references that I have read reveal that regulation of cheatgrass invasion will demand â€Å"a combination of chemical control, physical control, vegetative suppression, and proper livestock management where land is grazed† (Carpenter and Murray).It is obvious that the problem is quite a complex one as it involves many other variables. Moreover, human intervention could possibly worsen the ecological balance. Thus, the U. S. government and other ecological and environmental agencies should seriously and carefully address the problems and implement effective management programs to m inimize its infestations yet still making sure that ecological equilibrium is still achieved. Main Reference Carpenter, Allan and Thomas Murray. 1998. â€Å"Element Stewardship Abstract for Bromus tectorum.† The Nature Conservancy, Wildland Weed Program. Downloaded from: http://tncweeds. ucdavis. edu Works Cited Bartlett Elizabeth, Stephen Novak, and Richard Mack. â€Å"Genetic Variation in Bromus Tectorum (Poaceae): differentiation in the eastern United States,† American Journal of Botany, 89. 4 (2002): 602-612. Belnap, Jayne. Personal communication with Jayne Belnap. Ecologist, National Biological Service. Canyonlands National Park, Moab, Utah (10/19/98). Devine, Robert. â€Å"That cheatin’ heartland. † 51-71. In: Alien invasion: America’s battle with non-native animals and plants.National Geographic Society. Washington D. C. 1998. Emmerich, Fay, Frosty Tipton, and James Young. â€Å"Cheatgrass: Changing perspectives and management strategies. à ¢â‚¬  Rangelands 15 (1993): 37-39. Link, Steven. , Harvey Bolton, Jr. , Michael Thiede, and William Rickard. â€Å"Responses of downy brome to nitrogen and water. † Journal of Range Management 48 (1995): 290-297. Novak, Stephen, Richard Mack, and Pamela Soltis. â€Å"Genetic variation in Bromus tectorum (Poaceae): introduction dynamics in North America. † Canadian Journal of Botany 71 (1993): 1441–1448.Mosely, Jeffrey, Stephen Bunting and Mark Manoukian. â€Å"Cheatgrass. † 175-188. In: Sheley, Roger L. ; Petroff, Janet K. , eds. Biology and management of noxious rangeland weeds. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 1999. Pyron, Jayson. â€Å"Cheatgrass (Bromus Tectorum). † Rice, Kevin, and Richard Mack. â€Å"Ecological genetics of Bromus tectorum: intraspecific variation in phenotypic plasticity. † Oecologia 88 (1991): 84-90.Upadhyaya, Mahesh, Roy Turkington and Douglas McIlvride. â€Å"The biology of Canadian weeds. 75. Bromus tectorum L. † Canadian Journal of Plant Science 66 (1986): 689-709. West, Niel. Western intermountain sagebrush steppe: Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts. 351-373. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1993. Whisenant, Steven â€Å"Changing fire frequencies on Idaho’s Snake River Plains: Ecological and management implications. † Proceedings-Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management, 1990.

Kemosabe

He loved the solitude of the mountains, and as he dismounted his horse he smiled as the usual thoughts and emotions washed over him His ex-wife sarcastically called it the Zen of the Mountain Man, which he thought was a perfect fit. To him, well, to family going back a half-dozen generations these mountains were home, and in a lot of ways he knew his way around here better than his apartment complex.He led his horse to a tiny glade and tied the reins to a low branch where he could nibble on the mountain grass. For a brief moment he gazed at the steed and his hand-tooled saddle and was proud that everything he needed to live in the woods and mountains was right there in front of him. It gave him the comfort self-reliant people have, knowing how to use the best tools and equipment and keeping it all in good shape and neatly organized.He took his binoculars from a saddle bag and strapped it around his neck. From the scabbard came a well-used Ruger Number 1 rifle, a single-shot chambered in 7mm Remington Magnum topped with an equally worn Unertl scope. He was equally proud of his marksmanship; even after he lost the eye he rarely if ever needed a second shot. Besides, if you missed the first shot chances are your prey spooked and ran.He climbed a hundred yards or so to a rocky ridgeline that gave him a perfect view of the valley below and the mountainside opposite his position. Any shot at an elk here could be up to 500 yards, well within the lethal range of his gun and optics. He reloaded his own ammo, learning the hard way never leave anything to chance or someone else’s control. Soon he spied several younger bucks and a stag too big for the youngsters to challenge—for now.He loved the natural order of nature, how it provided for those who took care of it, and in his mind he was already butchering the bounty that would feed him well for months. He said a silent prayer the stag would keep grazing and present him a solid broadside shot. Suddenly he no ticed the elk froze, ears perked and eyes alert and just as suddenly they bolted out of sight. A brief moment later the sound that spooked his quarry rolled up the hill.â€Å"Fuck! Ignorant mother-fucking assholes!† he swore, already up and moving down to his horse as the distant growl of a big ‘dozer washed the hills. He unloaded his rifle and leaned the rifle against a tree. He found the ammo pouch he was looking for, each shell tipped with an especially hardened solid metal-piercing bullet.It took him a while to get a good view of the bright yellow machine as it tore into trees. â€Å"Just great, asshole,† he whispered to himself. Whack down another couple dozen trees and show yourself.† He waited until the moment the machine throttled up, certain the engine’s noise would mask his gunfire. He knew that from experience. He also knew that the metallic ‘bang’ of the bullet slamming through the engine cover and impacting on the engine, al ong with the sudden appearance of a shiny hole would get the operator’s attention.The heavy recoil of his shot rocked against his shoulder. He was halfway to his mount when he heard the motor die into silence. He shook his head in disgust and patted his horse. â€Å"Well, Jumper, just another day in fucking paradise.†On the way home he remembered the days when his oath and badge would have compelled him to search out and arrest the sneaky SOB vandal. It was both just a few years as well as a lifetime past. If anyone had the right to a hard-on for the logging interests, he did. He had tried to restore order in a bar full of loggers and lost his eye in the vicious brawl that ensued. At least a half-dozen loggers set upon him, kicking and laughing as the other patrons watched, either uncaring or too frightened to come to his aid. Miraculously he was able to draw his back-up revolver and shoot three of them, killing one, before they surrendered. Luck was with him—it was a five shot revolver.Insult was added to injury when he was taken off the road and given a job as a dispatcher. His brother-in-law lawyer was able to secure a decent monetary settlement for his injuries and partial loss of sight. Then a new sheriff was elected, nothing but a pawn of the logging coalition, and he was, in the vernacular, â€Å"adios’d†. Pissed as he was. he knew he couldn’t kill anyone, at least not without the heat of battle. But it wouldn’t stop him from ruining their day. Or months and years, he was happy to admit.As much as he liked the solitude, he wasn’t anti-social, and had more than a few good friends he regularly met up with at old bar. He thought his pal Barney summed it up: the kind of place Hemmingway would be comfortable barfing in. He loved Barney and his bullshit, and found him holding court with a bunch of coeds and beatniks. Barney held his lecture and beamed at him. â€Å"Yo! The Great White Hunter returns! Ar e we gonna have an elk bar-be-que tonight?†He glanced at the cleavage of the young girl putting his beer on the table. â€Å"No such luck. Busted. Goddam noise from the logging scares ‘em into fucking Canada.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Well,† Barney said, â€Å"maybe you need to chase other game.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Like hell I will.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Take bulldozers for instance. The news says someone nailed a trophy Cat in Gates Valley this morning.†He raised his glass. â€Å"No shit? Here’s to ‘em!†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Yep.† Barney had a drunken grin. â€Å"Damn shame they’re too heavy to quarter and take home. It’d make a hellofa mount!†